On the Sublime (Latin: De
Sublimitate) is a Roman-era Greek work of literary criticism
dated to the 1st century C.E. Its author is unknown, but it is conventionally
referred to as Longinus or Pseudo-Longinus.
The
author is unknown. In the 10th-century reference manuscript (Parisinus Graecus 2036), the heading reports "Dionysius or Longinus," an
ascription by the medieval copyist that was misread as "by Dionysius Longinus." The work was
initially attributed to Cassius Longinus
(c. 213–273 AD). Since the correct translation includes the possibility of an
author named "Dionysius,"
some have attributed the work to Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, a writer of the 1st
century BC.
Among
further names proposed are Hermagoras of Temnos
(a rhetorician who lived in Rome
during the 1st century AD), Aelius Theon
(author of a work which had many ideas in common with those of On the Sublime), and
Pompeius Geminus (who was in epistolary conversation with Dionysius). He received his education at Alexandria and then went to Athens to teach. He later moved to Asia Minor, where he achieved the position of
advisor to Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra.
Cassius
is a dubious possibility for author of the treatise because he wrote in the 3rd century, and no literature later than the 1st
century AD is mentioned (the latest is Cicero, who died in 43 BC), and the work
is now usually dated to the early 1st century AD. Cassius
was executed by Aurelian, the Roman emperor who conquered Palmyra in 273
AD. Longinus is reported to have
written answers for the Queen, which
were used in response to Aurelian,
the man who would soon rise to power as the Roman
emperor.
On the Sublime, a treatise on literary criticism by Longinus, dates to approximately the 1st century CE. The earliest surviving
manuscript, from the 10th century,
was first printed in 1554. This treatise is assigned a 1st-century CE date because it was a response
to a work by Caecilius of Calacte, a Sicilian rhetorician, from that
period. The work contains 17 chapters
on figures of speech, which have occupied critics and poets ever since they
were written. About a third of the manuscript is lost.
Longinus
suggests that greatness of thought, if not inborn, can be acquired by emulating
great authors such as Homer, Demosthenes, and Plato.
Illustrative quotations recorded in On the
Sublime occasionally preserves work that would otherwise be
lost—for example, one of odes.
On the Sublime is a treatise on aesthetics and literary
criticism dedicated to Postumius Terentianus,
a cultured Roman and public figure. Along with the expected examples from Homer and other figures of Greek culture, Longinus refers to a passage from Genesis, which is quite unusual for the 1st
century: “A similar effect was achieved by
the lawgiver of the Jews—no mean genius, for he both understood and gave
expression to the power of the divinity as it deserved—when he wrote at the
very beginning of his laws, and I quote his words: ‘God said,’—what was
it?—‘Let there be light, and there was. Let there be earth, and there was.’”
Genesis
suggests that Longinus may have been
either a Hellenized Jew or at least
familiar with Jewish Culture. He
emphasizes that to be a truly great writer, authors must have "moral excellence." Longinus acknowledges that complete liberty
promotes spirit and hope; according to him, “never
did a slave become an orator.”
He
argues that luxury and wealth lead to a decay in eloquence—eloquence being the
goal of the sublime writer. Longinus
ultimately promotes an "elevation of
style" and an essence of "simplicity." The concept of the
sublime generally refers to a style of writing that elevates itself "above the ordinary."
On the Sublime is both a treatise on aesthetics and a work
of literary criticism. The treatise is dedicated to Postumius
Terentianus, though little else is known about him. It is a
compendium of literary exemplars, mentioning or quoting about 50 authors spanning 1,000 years. Along with
the expected examples from Homer and
other figures of Greek culture, Longinus refers to a passage from Genesis, which is quite unusual for the 1st
century.
Longinus
sets out five sources of sublimity: "great
thoughts, strong emotions, certain figures of thought and speech, noble
diction, and dignified word arrangement." An example of On the sublime, which the author quotes in
the work, is a poem by Sappho, the
so-called Ode to Jealousy, defined as a
"Sublime ode." A
writer's goal is not so much to express empty feelings, but to arouse emotion
in the audience.
The
sources of On the Sublime
are of two kinds: inborn sources ("aspiration
to vigorous concepts" and "strong and enthusiastic passion") and
acquirable sources (rhetorical devices, choice of the right lexicon, and "dignified and high composition").
Thus, the treatise is clearly centered on the burning controversy that raged in
the 1st century AD in Latin literature. Tacitus was closer to Longinus in thinking, arguing that the root of
this decadence was the establishment of Princedom or
Empire, which, though it brought stability and peace, also led to
censorship and an end to freedom of speech.
Rhys Roberts argues that the word
sublime is misleading, since Longinus'
objective broadly concerns "the
essentials of a noble and impressive style" rather than
anything more narrow and specific. Moreover, about one-third of the treatise is
missing. 18th-century critic Edward Burnaby Greene
finds Longinus, at times, to be "too
refined." Greene
also claims that Longinus' focus on
hyperbolical descriptions is "particularly
weak, and apparently misapplied."
Occasionally,
Longinus also falls into a sort of
"tediousness" in
treating his subjects. Finally, Longinus'
treatise is difficult to explain in an academic setting, given the difficulty
of the text and the lack of "practical
rules of a teachable kind." Despite its faults, the
treatise remains critically successful because of its "noble tone," "apt precepts,"
"judicious attitude," and "historical interests."
Longinus
rebels against the popular rhetoric of the time by implicitly attacking ancient
theory in its focus on a detailed criticism of words, metaphors, and figures.
Essentially, Longinus, rare for a
critic of his time, focuses more on "greatness
of style" than "technical
rules." Despite his criticism of ancient texts, Longinus remains a "master of candor and good-nature."
Moreover, the author invents striking images and metaphors, writing almost
lyrically at times. In reading On the Sublime,
critics have determined that the ancient philosopher and writer Plato is a
"great hero" to Longinus. Another influence on the treatise
can be found in Longinus' rhetorical figures, which draw from theories by
the 1st-century BCE writer Caecilius of Calacte.
In the 10th century, the original treatise was copied into a medieval
manuscript and attributed to "Dionysius
or Longinus."
On the
Sublime is written in
epistolary form. Longinus dedicated
the work to one Posthumius Terentianus,
a public figure in Ancient Rome known
for being cultured.
Longinus also mentions Genesis,
a book in Hebrew Bible.
Longinus provides five sources that can lead to this goal:
1.
Great
thoughts
(refers to profound and impactful ideas or themes
that elevate a work of literature. Great
thoughts involve ideas that are significant and weighty. They often
address fundamental truths about human nature, the cosmos, or existential
concerns. They tap into shared human experiences or emotions, making them
relevant and impactful for a broad audience. )
2.
Noble
diction ( refers to the use of elevated and refined language
that contributes to the grandeur and majesty of a literary work. )
3.
Certain
figures of thought of speech (refer to specific rhetorical devices and stylistic elements that
contribute to the grandeur and sublimity of a literary work. )
4.
Strong
emotions
(refer to the intense and powerful feelings that a
writer can evoke in their audience through their prose or poetry. Strong emotions are those that are deeply felt
and convey a sense of urgency or intensity. These can include profound feelings
of joy, sorrow, anger, or awe.)
5.
Dignified word arrangement (refers to the careful and deliberate organization
of words and phrases in a way that enhances the grandeur and elegance of a
literary work. )
Sublimity springs from a great and lofty soul, thereby
becoming “one echo of a great soul".
Longinus believes that sublimity is
achieved by a deft handling of Nature and Art,
which is inborn genius and learned skills. Such elevating thoughts that remain
as the “echo of great soul" are possible when the author has power
of forming great conceptions. It should match with the grandeur of subject,
thought and lofty style. It is a statement in question form that suggests its
own answer. An apostrophe is a direct
address to a person, thing, or abstraction, or readers that helps to move
readers. Asydenton is a figure of
speech in which clauses are left unconnected.
Hyberaton is an intentional inversion of word designed for
special emphasis or climatic effect. It is a passion out of place and meaning,
where there is no cause for passion or unrestrained where restraint is needed.
Here unrestrained passion does not make sublime for the greatness of soul,
place, manner, occasion, and purposes are essential.
On The
Sublime Summary:
On the
Sublime by Longinus is a work of literary criticism thought
to date back to 1st century Rome.
Literary Criticism:
Finally, Longinus
sets out five sources of sublimity:
1. Great thoughts
2. Strong emotions
3. Certain figures of thought and speech
4. Noble diction
5. Dignified word arrangement
Sappho, the so-called Ode
to Jealousy, defined as a "Sublime
ode". The author asserts, "the Sublime leads the listeners not to
persuasion, but to ecstasy: for what is wonderful always goes together with a
sense of dismay, and prevails over what is only convincing or delightful, since
persuasion, as a rule, is within everyone's grasp: whereas, the Sublime, giving
to speech an invincible power and [an invincible] strength, rises above every
listener."
He writes that in order to support spirit and hope,
freedom is necessary. In addition, Longinus
admires genius in writing. He mentions specific writers in addition to Homer,
including Sappho, Plato, and Aristophanes. Longinus talks about these writers’ ability to create the sublime by causing
readers to feel pleasure. Bravery is necessary to take risks, and taking risks is necessary to
reach the sublime.
Longinus’ own writing is rarely described as perfect or
even sublime in part because of his overzealous enthusiasm.
By the 10th century,
On the Sublime was
copied into a medieval manuscript where it was incorrectly attributed to Dionysius or Longinus, which was misread or
mistranslated as Dionysius Longinus,
and therefore confused with Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, who also lived during the first century.
Decay of
rhetoric:
The author speaks absence of political freedom but
also from the corruption of morals, which together destroy that high spirit
which generates the Sublime. The
treatise is clearly centred in the 1st century
AD in Latin literature.
Eloquence as the causes of decay, Tacitus
was nearer to Longinus in thinking. The "sublime"
in the title has been translated in various ways, to include senses of
elevation and excellent style.
Rhys
Roberts, is misleading,
broadly concerns "the essentials of a
noble and impressive style" than anything more narrow and
specific. Edward
Burnaby Greene finds Longinus, at times, to be "too refined."
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